Historically, countries have resorted to policies including high tariffs and state subsidies for domestic firms to bolster their industrial capacities when great power rivalry deepens. This trend is reinventing itself in numerous sectors, from chips to rare earths, and is likely to continue. As early as the 19th century, German-American economist Friedrich List claimed that Germany had much to learn from the United States and Britain. List believed that industrial power is essential for national autonomy.

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